Fingerprint matching algorithm

ABSTRACT

A method of matching a reference fingerprint image and an input fingerprint image, represented by a first set of minutiae and a second set of minutiae, including: determining a first local neighborhood for each minutia including at least one minutia neighboring the minutia, comparing the first local neighborhoods in the first set with the first local neighborhoods in the second set to determine matched minutiae, filtering the matched minutiae based on a difference between their positions, determining a second local neighborhood for each unmatched minutia including at least one matched minutia neighboring the unmatched minutia, comparing the second local neighborhoods in the first set with the second local neighborhoods in the second set to determine further matched minutiae, filtering the matched minutiae and the further matched minutiae based on a difference between their positions, and determining whether the first and second fingerprint images are the same.

RELATED APPLICATIONS

The present application is related to International Application No.PCT/EP2013/072874, entitled “Fingerprint Enrolment Algorithm,” thenational phase of which is filed herewith. International Application No.PCT/EP2013/072874 is incorporated herein by reference in full.

TECHNICAL FIELD

The present invention relates to minutia-based fingerprint analysis.More particularly, the present invention relates to a method ofcomparing a first set of minutiae and a second set of minutiae.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

A fingerprint is made up of interleaved ridges and valleys on thesurface of a finger. A typical ridge varies in width from about 100 μmto 300 μm and a typical peak-to-peak ridge spacing is about 500 μm. Afingerprint image is a representation of those ridges and valleys, withridge lines being typically represented as dark lines and the valleysbetween them are bright lines. An exemplary fingerprint image is shownin FIG. 1.

Fingerprints are unique to an individual, making them ideal foridentification purposes. A fingerprint verification system can thereforeverify a user's identity by comparing a captured fingerprint image witha pre-stored template fingerprint image. Although each fingerprint isunique to an individual, fingerprints share common features. These maybe categorised as follows.

Level 1 features of a fingerprint include loops, whorls, arches anddeltas formed by the ridges. These features describe the overall shapefollowed by the ridges. Level 1 features may be used to distinguishbetween two non-matching fingerprints, but do not give sufficient detailto confirm a match between two fingerprints.

Level 2 features of a fingerprint, or minutiae, are irregularities ordiscontinuities in the ridges. Eighteen different types of minutiae havebeen identified. However, the two major types of minutiae are ridgeterminations and ridge bifurcations, i.e. where a ridge ends or where aridge divides into two ridges. By comparison of Level 2 features, amatch between two fingerprints can be confirmed.

Level 3 features of a fingerprint describe intra-ridge details. Theseinclude sweat pores and local ridge shape, as well as scarring, warts,creases and other local deformation of the ridges. The extraction ofLevel 3 features requires high resolution fingerprint sensors (typicallygreater than 800 dpi).

The following disclosure relates to fingerprint verification based onthe analysis of Level 2 features.

Fingerprint verification is the one-to-one comparison of an inputfingerprint with a reference fingerprint image for the purpose of eitheraccepting or rejecting a claim of identity. It is common in the art tostore, and thus compare, only a fingerprint template rather than thefull fingerprint image. A fingerprint template is a set of key featuresextracted from the fingerprint image, such as minutiae points, thatdescribe the fingerprint image.

The extraction of minutiae from a fingerprint image to form the templatetypically requires a gray-scale fingerprint image to be enhanced andthen converted into a binary image. Fingerprint enhancement typicallyincludes Gabor filtering, which improves discrimination between theridges and valleys. The fingerprint image is binarised by setting aglobal threshold t and setting all pixels with intensity greater than tto 1 and all remaining pixels to 0 to produce a binary fingerprintimage, and the binary fingerprint image is then thinned such that allridges are reduced to one pixel width (see for example Zhang T. Y. andSuen C. Y. “A Fast Parallel Algorithm for Thinning Digital Patterns”,Communications of the ACM, v.27 n.3, pp. 236-239, 1984) to produce athinned ridge map, also know as a fingerprint skeleton.

Minutia detection is a trivial task when an ideal thinned ridge map isobtained. This can be seen from FIG. 2, which shows a thinned ridge mapof the fingerprint image of FIG. 1 in which the minutiae points forridge endings and ridge bifurcations are highlighted. The squaresrepresent ridge endings and the circles represent ridge bifurcations.

FIG. 3 shows a minutiae representation of the fingerprint in FIG. 1.Each minutia is typically stored as a data point defined by a positionwithin the fingerprint, a minutia type (i.e. ridge ending, ridgebifurcation, etc.) and a minutia angle (i.e. the orientation of theminutia relative to a reference orientation).

Fingerprint verification may be seen to comprise two distinct stages,enrolment and matching. Enrolment is the process of registering a newreference fingerprint image template and broadly comprises scanning afingerprint and extracting a fingerprint template from that scan, andmatching is the process of comparing a further input fingerprint withthat fingerprint template, usually at a later time, in order to verifythe identity of a user.

In known enrolment methods, a fingerprint image is input by beingscanned by a fingerprint sensor. After the fingerprint image isobtained, feature extraction is performed, for example minutiaeextraction as discussed above. Feature extraction provides a templatethat completely describes the fingerprint.

U.S. Pat. No. 4,752,966 describes a prior art method of enrolling afingerprint using a swipe-type fingerprint sensor.

Matching of a fingerprint involves taking an input fingerprint image andcomparing the input fingerprint image to one or more referencefingerprint images. The print is verified when a match is made betweenthe input fingerprint image and a reference fingerprint image that has asufficient reliability that the probability of a false positive is belowsome predetermined threshold.

US 2008/0273770 describes a prior art method of matching a profferedfingerprint image with a reference fingerprint image using minutiacomparison. In US 2008/0273770, for each minutia of the inputfingerprint, a “minutia neighbourhood” is identified centred around acentral minutia and defining a finite region around the central minutiaincluding at least a second minutia. In each neighbourhood, a minutiaepair is defined for each pair of the central minutia with a neighbouringminutia. Each minutiae pair is described by several features includingthe spacing between the two minutiae in a pair, the difference oforientations of two minutiae and the angle between the orientation ofthe central minutia and a line connecting the two minutiae. From theseminutiae pair features, a minutiae pair index is constructed. Minutiaepair indices of a reference fingerprint image are compared to those ofthe proffered fingerprint to determine whether the fingerprints match.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

Viewed from a first aspect, the present invention provides a method ofcomparing a first set of minutiae and a second set of minutiae, themethod comprising: determining a first local neighbourhood for eachminutia in the first set of minutiae and in the second set of minutiae,wherein each first local neighbourhood includes at least one minutianeighbouring the respective minutia; comparing the first localneighbourhoods of the minutiae in the first set of minutiae with thefirst local neighbourhoods of the minutiae in the second set of minutiaeto determine matched minutiae appearing in both the first and secondsets of minutiae, wherein each minutia that is not a matched minutia isan unmatched minutia; determining a second local neighbourhood for eachunmatched minutia in the first set of minutiae and in the second set ofminutiae, wherein each second local neighbourhood includes at least onematched minutia neighbouring the respective unmatched minutia; andcomparing the second local neighbourhoods of the unmatched minutiae inthe first set of minutiae with the second local neighbourhoods of theunmatched minutiae in the second set of minutiae to determine furthermatched minutiae appearing in both the first and second sets ofminutiae.

In accordance with the first aspect of the present invention, first andsecond sets of minutiae are first compared using a local neighbourhoodincluding at least one of their neighbouring minutiae. The neighbouringminutiae of a central minutia comprise any set of minutiae within thesame set of minutiae that can be consistently selected based on thatcentral minutia. Matching the minutiae using local frames of reference(using their neighbouring minutiae) means that the matching isindependent of the orientation and position of the minutiae within thefirst or second set. Hence the comparison between the data of the firstand second sets may be performed using simple mathematical functionswithout the need for more complex processing, as would be required todirectly compare the two sets of data points. Complex processing wouldbe required to directly compare the two sets of data points because thepoints would have to be aligned in three dimensions (x, y, θ), whereaslocal comparison allows for direct comparison between the minutiaewithout the need for alignment of the set as a whole.

After the first step of matching, there will likely be a number ofpoints that are not matched. This is because the first and second setsof minutiae will typically not correspond exactly for reasons such as:errors when inputting the fingerprint or extracting the minutiae,meaning that not all of the minutiae are extracted or that falseminutiae are inadvertently scanned; or where one or both of the sets ofminutiae represents a partial fingerprint, meaning that a number ofminutiae of the complete fingerprint are outside of the partialfingerprint and thus cannot be extracted.

When the minutia in the first and second sets of minutiae do notcorrespond exactly, a particular minutiae that appears in both the firstand second sets of minutiae may not be matched if its neighbouringminutia do not appear in both of the first and second sets of minutiae.

In accordance with the first aspect of the present invention, the firstand second sets of minutiae are then subsequently compared using asecond local reference system based on matched neighbouring minutiae.The matched neighbouring minutiae of a minutia similarly comprise anyset of minutiae that can be consistently selected based on the centralminutia, but that were also matched in the first step of matching basedon the first local neighbourhoods.

Matching the minutiae using matched neighbouring minutiae means that thelocal reference frame will be defined only with reference to minutiaethat appear in both the first and second sets of minutiae. Missingminutiae or false minutiae do not appear in both sets and therefore willnot be matched in the first step of matching. Thus, even if someminutiae are missing, or false minutiae are present, the use of a localreference system based on matched neighbouring minutiae will not beaffected by these. Therefore, the maximum number of minutiae that appearin both the first and second sets of minutiae will be matched.

Typically, one of the first set and the second set of minutiae willrelate to a reference template previously enrolled for authorisationpurposes and the other will be a template produced from a fingerprintsensor or similar. The reference template may be stored in a memory orsimilar and in some cases it may be desirable to also or alternativelystore previously determined first local neighbourhoods for the minutiaof the reference template. In the latter case, the step of determiningfirst local neighbourhoods for the set of minutiae from the referencetemplate may comprise retrieving the stored information on the firstlocal neighbourhoods, rather than generating those first localneighbourhoods at the same time as generating the first localneighbourhoods for the other set of minutiae.

Whilst the method of the first aspect is applicable to any printrepresentable by a set of minutiae, the invention is particularlyapplicable to fingerprints. Thus, preferably the first set of minutiaerepresents a reference fingerprint image and the second set of minutiaerepresents an input fingerprint image.

Input fingerprint images are often partial fingerprint images and arethus particularly prone to missing minutiae at the periphery of the scanarea. The present invention is particularly useful in cases where one ofthe sets of minutiae represents an input fingerprint because it allowsminutiae close to the periphery of the scanned area to be matched usinga local coordinate reference system, which is very computationallyefficient. However, the method is still applicable in conventionalminutiae comparison when the sets of minutiae represent complete printsas there are almost inevitably false or missing minutiae in any printrepresentation.

The method preferably further comprises: receiving the first set ofminutiae representing the input fingerprint from a fingerprint sensor;and receiving the second set of minutiae representing the secondfingerprint from a memory. As, for example, in the case where the secondset of minutiae represent a reference fingerprint.

Whilst the method of the first aspect may be used to provide some formof comparison index, for example a confidence score of a match or thenumber or percentage of matched minutiae, the method preferably furthercomprises, after determining the further matched minutiae, determiningwhether the first and second fingerprints are the same. The determiningmay comprise determining that the prints are matched when the number ofmatched minutiae exceeds a predetermined number of minutiae. Thepredetermined number of minutiae may be a predetermined percentage ofthe total number of minutiae in the first and/or second sets ofminutiae.

Any suitable comparison algorithm may be utilised to determine matchedminutia appearing in both the first and second sets of minutia.Preferably, the comparison is rotation and translation invariant so asto improve computational efficiency. This may be achieved by usingrelative distances and angles with respect only to the position andorientation of the central minutia. Thus, the comparing of the firstlocal neighbourhoods may be based on a relative relationship in the formof at least one of: a relative position, a relative orientation and arelative minutia angle of each of the at least one neighbouring minutiarelative to a central minutia of the respective first localneighbourhood.

Whilst a direct comparison between first local neighbourhoods ispossible, any false or missing minutiae within either of the first localneighbourhoods will prevent the first local neighbourhoods from beingmatched. A more efficient method of matching instead includes comparingthe relationships between each central minutia with each of itsneighbouring minutia, and determining a match when any one relationshipin a first local neighbourhood matched any one relationship in anotherfirst local neighbourhood match.

Thus, the method preferably further comprises: for each first localneighbourhood, determining a relative relationship between a centralminutia of the first local neighbourhood and each of the at least oneneighbouring minutia, wherein comparing the first local neighbourhoodscomprises comparing each relative relationship of the first localneighbourhoods of the minutiae in the first set of minutiae with eachrelative relationship of the first local neighbourhoods of the minutiaein the second set of minutiae, and wherein a matched minutiae isdetermined as appearing in both the first and second sets of minutiaewhen a difference between one relative relationship of the respectivefirst local neighbourhood of the minutiae in one of the sets of minutiaeand one relative relationship of the first local neighbourhood of theminutiae in the other set of minutiae is below a predeterminedthreshold.

By virtue of this method, in order to be matched, the first localneighbourhood need only capture at least one minutia appearing in bothsets of minutiae.

The matched minutia should not include any false minutiae, or minutiaecorresponding to missing minutiae. Therefore, a direct comparison of thesecond local neighbourhoods should be effective. However, the samemethod of comparison is may be utilised when matching both the firstlocal neighbourhoods and the second local neighbourhoods in order tosimplify the algorithm.

Thus, the method may also comprise: for each second local neighbourhood,determining a relative relationship between a central minutia of thesecond local neighbourhood and each of the at least one neighbouringmatched minutia, wherein comparing the second local neighbourhoodscomprises comparing each relative relationship of the second localneighbourhoods of the unmatched minutiae in the first set of minutiaewith each relative relationship of the second local neighbourhoods ofthe unmatched minutiae in the second set of minutiae, and wherein amatched minutiae is determined as appearing in both the first and secondsets of minutiae when a difference between one relative relationship ofthe respective second local neighbourhood of the unmatched minutiae inone of the sets of minutiae and one relationship of the second localneighbourhood of the unmatched minutiae in the other set of minutiae isbelow a predetermined threshold.

The same predetermined threshold may be used for comparison both of thefirst local neighbourhoods and of the second local neighbourhoods.However, a different threshold may instead be used.

The method may utilise just one of a relative position, a relativeorientation and a relative minutia angle as the relative relationship.In preferred embodiments more than one or all of these parameters areused in the matching of minutiae.

Optionally, the above method of matching local neighbourhoods may beused independently of the method of the first aspect. That is to saythat this method of matching local neighbourhoods may be used without asecond step of matching.

Thus, in an alternative aspect, the present invention also provides amethod of comparing a first set of minutiae and a second set ofminutiae, the method comprising: determining a first local neighbourhoodfor each minutia in the first set of minutiae and in the second set ofminutiae, wherein each first local neighbourhood includes at least oneminutia neighbouring the respective minutia; for each first localneighbourhood, determining a relative relationship between a centralminutia of the first local neighbourhood and each of the at least oneneighbouring minutia, comparing each relative relationship of the firstlocal neighbourhoods of the minutiae in the first set of minutiae witheach relative relationship of the first local neighbourhoods of theminutiae in the second set of minutiae; and determining matched minutiaeappearing in both the first and second sets of minutiae when adifference between one relative relationship of the respective firstlocal neighbourhood of the minutiae in one of the sets of minutiae andone relationship of the first local neighbourhood of the minutiae in theother set of minutiae is below a predetermined threshold. In preferredembodiments this alternative aspect may further include any or all ofthe preferred features discussed in relation to the method of the firstaspect.

Returning to the method of the first aspect, the matching of minutiaesets using a local frame of reference is computationally efficient, butcan be prone to obvious errors, such as where local neighbourhoods inthe first and second sets of minutiae appear similar, but are incompletely different locations within the overall fingerprint. Anoptional step of filtering based on a comparison between the absoluteposition and/or orientation of the matched minutiae within therespective sets of minutiae can be used to catch some of these erroneousmatches. The method therefore preferably further comprises providing aposition and a minutia angle of each minutia within the first and secondsets of minutiae; and, after the first step of matching and before thesecond step of matching, filtering the matched minutiae based on theposition and/or orientation of each of the matched minutiae within thefirst and second sets of minutiae.

Preferably the position is defined using Cartesian coordinates relativeto a common reference point for all of the minutiae within the set ofminutiae. However, any suitable coordinate reference scheme may insteadbe used, for example radial coordinates relative to a core of thefingerprint may be appropriate in some circumstances.

Due to the reduced number of minutiae being compared, the second step ofmatching is less prone to the above described errors. However, this typeof error can still occur and thus filtering may also be applied afterthe second step of matching. The method thus preferably furthercomprises, after both of the first step of matching and the second stepof matching, filtering matched minutiae based on the position and/ororientation of each of the matched minutiae within the first and secondsets of minutiae.

Preferably, the above filtering is based on a relative position and/or arelative orientation of each of the matched minutiae between the firstand second sets of minutiae. The filtering may therefore comprise:determining a relative position and/or a relative orientation of eachmatched minutia between the first and second sets of minutiae; andfiltering out matched minutiae having a relative position and/or arelative orientation that is outside of a predetermined range.

The relative position and orientation of a mismatched minutia betweenthe first and second sets of minutiae will typically be significantlydifferent to that of correctly matched minutiae, which will beapproximately the same. Therefore, a relatively small range can bedefined around these correctly matched minutiae and any matched minutiaethat fall outside of this range can be assumed to be incorrectlymatched.

The centre of the predetermined range is preferably such that a maximumnumber of matched minutiae fall within the predetermined range. Althoughmany methods may be used to determine this range, the centre of thepredetermined range is preferably the average, more preferably themedian, of the relative positions and/or the relative orientations.

The range should be moved so as to maximise the number of matchedminutiae captured as the location where most of the matched minutiae areclustered should be close to the actual offset of the two sets ofminutiae, assuming that they match. The use of the average relativeposition or relative orientation to centre the predetermined rangeprovides a computationally efficient method for selecting as many of thematched minutiae as possible within that range. Particularly, most ofthe matched minutiae would be expected to be correct therefore themedian relative position or orientation should be at approximately thecentre of the cluster of correctly matched minutiae.

Preferably the comparing the first local neighbourhoods comprises:determining a similarity score based on a similarity between each firstlocal neighbourhood of the first set of minutiae and each first localneighbourhood of the second set of minutiae; and determining a minutiais matched between the first and second sets of minutiae when itssimilarity score meets a predetermined similarity threshold.

Where a minutia is paired with two other minutiae in the other set, i.e.it has a similarity score meeting the similarity threshold with respectto two local vectors in the other set of minutiae, at least one of thesematches must be incorrect. This may be detected by filtering; howeverthis can be avoided by only allowing a pair to be matched with the mostsimilar neighbourhood. The method may therefore comprise determining thematched minutiae between the first and second sets of minutiae byranking each pair of minutiae between the first and second sets ofminutiae by similarity score; and sequentially determining matchedminutiae with decreasing similarity when the similarity score meets thesimilarity threshold and when neither of the pair of minutiae is amatched minutiae. Filtering based on a similarly score may be appliedeither before or after filtering based on relative minutia positionsbetween the first and second sets of minutiae.

The method of comparing first local neighbourhoods may similarly beapplied to the method of comparing second local neighbourhoods.

The comparing of the second local neighbourhoods preferably furthercomprises: determining a similarity score based on a similarity betweeneach second local neighbourhood of the first set of minutiae and eachsecond local neighbourhood of the second set of minutiae; anddetermining a minutia is a further matched minutia between the first andsecond sets of minutiae when the similarity score meets a predeterminedsimilarity threshold.

The method preferably further comprises: determining the further matchedminutiae between the first and second sets of minutiae by ranking eachpair of minutiae between the first and second sets of minutiae bysimilarity score; and sequentially determining the further matchedminutiae with decreasing similarity when the similarity score meets thesimilarity threshold and when neither of the pair of minutiae is amatched minutiae.

Although a local neighbourhood need only include a single neighbouringminutia, the use of such a small local neighbourhood significantlyincreases the probability of failing to capture at least oneneighbouring minutia that is not a missing or false minutia. Thereforeeach first local network preferably includes three minutiae neighbouringthe respective minutia, and each second local network preferablyincludes three matched minutiae neighbouring the respective unmatchedminutia.

By using at least three neighbouring minutia, the chance of failing tocapture at least one neighbouring minutia that is not a missing or falseminutia is significantly reduced; however, the size of the localneighbourhood is still sufficiently small so as not to significantlyimpact processing time.

As noted above, the neighbouring minutiae may be any set of minutiaethat can be consistently selected; however, preferably the at least oneminutia is the at least one closest minutia and more preferably thethree closest minutiae.

Viewed from a second aspect, the present invention also provides a dataprocessing apparatus for comparing a first set of minutiae and a secondset of minutiae based on data representing the sets of minutiae, thedata processing apparatus being arranged to carry out a method asdescribed above in the first aspect or subsidiary aspect and preferredfeatures thereof. For example, in an apparatus relating to the firstaspect the apparatus may be arranged to: determine a first localneighbourhood for each minutia in the first set of minutiae and for eachminutia in the second set of minutiae, wherein each first localneighbourhood includes at least one minutia neighbouring the respectiveminutia; compare the first local neighbourhoods of the minutiae in thefirst set of minutiae with the first local neighbourhoods of theminutiae in the second set of minutiae to determine matched minutiaeappearing in both the first and second sets of minutiae, wherein eachminutia that is not a matched minutia is an unmatched minutia; determinea second local neighbourhood for each unmatched minutia in the first setof minutiae and for each unmatched minutia in the second set ofminutiae, wherein each second local neighbourhood includes at least onematched minutia neighbouring the respective unmatched minutia; andcompare the second local neighbourhoods of the unmatched minutiae in thefirst set of minutiae with the second local neighbourhoods of theunmatched minutiae in the second set of minutiae to determine furthermatched minutiae appearing in both the first and second sets ofminutiae.

The data processing apparatus may comprise a memory and a processor, thememory storing instructions that when executed will cause the processorto perform the steps described above.

In preferred embodiments the data processing apparatus may be arrangedto carry out any or all of the preferred features discussed above inrelation to the method of the first aspect.

The apparatus may comprise a fingerprint sensor for obtainingfingerprint data and communicating the fingerprint data to the processorfor matching with fingerprint data stored on the memory. In a preferredaspect, the apparatus is an electronic card comprising a fingerprintsensor, the memory and the processor. Preferably, the fingerprint sensorhas a width of less than 10 mm, and more preferably less than 7 mm.

Electronic cards typically have very strict power requirements as theyare either powered by onboard batteries or draw power from a reader whenused. This means that the components used on the electronic card,particularly the processor and the fingerprint sensor, must be low-powerdevices, which limits the processing power of the processor and theavailable size of the fingerprint sensor.

The method of the first aspect of the invention is very economic incomputational terms meaning that it can match prints quickly whenimplemented in an electronic card having lower processing power.Additionally, the method is particularly effective at matching printswhen one of the prints is a partial print, which will be the case when anarrow-width fingerprint sensor is used since the width of the sensor isless than the typical width of a fingerprint.

Viewed from a third aspect, the present invention also provides acomputer program product, or a tangible computer readable storage mediumstoring the computer program product, the computer program productcomprising instructions that when executed will cause a processor toperform the method of the first aspect and optionally any or all of thepreferred features discussed above.

These and other features and improvements of the present application andthe resultant patent will become apparent to one of ordinary skill inthe art upon review of the following detailed description when taken inconjunction with the several drawings and the appended claims.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWING

Certain preferred embodiments of the present invention will now bedescribed in greater detail by way of example only and with reference tothe following figures, in which:

FIG. 1 shows a fingerprint image;

FIG. 2 shows a ridge skeleton of the fingerprint shown in FIG. 1 withridge endings and ridge bifurcations highlighted;

FIG. 3 shows a minutia representation of the fingerprint shown in FIG.1;

FIG. 4A shows a partially cut-away side view of an electronic cardincluding a fingerprint swipe sensor;

FIG. 4B shows a partially cut-away top view of an electronic cardincluding a fingerprint swipe sensor;

FIG. 5 shows a pixel matrix of the fingerprint swipe sensor of FIG. 4;

FIG. 6 is a flow chart showing a method of enrolling a fingerprint.

FIG. 7 shows the fingerprint image shown in FIG. 1 with threeoverlapping strips highlighted;

FIGS. 8A-8C show minutia representations of each of the portions in FIG.7;

FIG. 9 shows a minutia representation of the fingerprint shown in FIG. 7composed of the minutiae representations shown in FIGS. 8A-8C;

FIG. 10 is a flow chart showing a method of comparing an inputfingerprint with a reference fingerprint image;

FIG. 11 shows the fingerprint image shown in FIG. 1 with a portionhighlighted;

FIG. 12 shows a minutia representation of the portion shown in FIG. 11;

FIG. 13 shows a relationship between a central minutia and twoneighbouring minutiae;

FIG. 14 shows a filter applied to a plot of relative displacement andorientation for matched minutiae between the representation shown inFIG. 2 and the representation shown in FIG. 12.

FIG. 15A shows a relationship between a central minutia and its threeclosest neighbouring minutiae in the fingerprint representation shown inFIG. 2;

FIG. 15B shows a relationship between the same central minutia and itsthree closest neighbouring minutiae in the portion representation shownin FIG. 12;

FIG. 16A shows a relationship between the same minutia and its threeclosest neighbouring matched minutiae in the fingerprint representationshown in FIG. 2; and

FIG. 16B shows a relationship between the same minutia and its threeclosest neighbouring matched minutiae in the portion representationshown in FIG. 12.

The following preferred embodiments of the invention relate particularlyto fingerprints.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

The term fingerprint is intended to mean a print (a graphicrepresentation of ridges and valleys) of a finger (including the thumb).However, it will be understood that the method is not limited tofingerprints, but is applicable to any print that can be represented bya set of minutiae points. Such prints include, for example, prints fromfingers, palms, toes and soles.

FIGS. 4A and 4B show partially cut-away views of an electronic card 2including a fingerprint swipe sensor 8. The following preferredembodiments will be described with reference to the electronic card 2.The fingerprint sensor 8 can be incorporated into any suitable smartcard as a biometric sensor for additional security. The electronic card2 shown in FIGS. 4A and 4B is not to scale and certain features havebeen emphasised. Particularly, the thicknesses of the card body 4 and ofthe circuit 6 have been enlarged so as to more clearly illustrate thefeatures of the smart card. Also, the size of the fingerprint sensor 8is not necessarily in scale with the size of the smart card 2.

Smart cards are generally of a similar size to a conventional creditcard and have a similar look and feel. Conventional credit cards aremanufactured in accordance with international standard ID-1 of ISO/IEC7810, that is to say having dimensions of 3⅜ inches by 2⅛ inches(approx. 86 mm by 54 mm) and a thickness of 6 mil (approx. 0.75 mm). Thesmart card may be thicker than a conventional credit card in order toaccommodate a circuit and fingerprint sensor.

In contact smart cards, often known as chip cards, metal contacts arebrought to the surface of the card in a predetermined pattern to form acontact pad, which is accessible from the outside of the card. Thesecontacts are connected to a microprocessor inside of the card. Smartcards of the first type are commonly used by being slid into a recess ofa card reader such that spring loaded contacts in the card reader makecontact with the contact pad on the card in order to read the contentsof the microprocessor.

In contactless smart cards, often known as proximity cards, the contentsof the microprocessor are transmitted to the reader using non-contactcommunication technology. One example of such is radio-frequencyidentification (RFID), where an antenna is formed within the body of thecard and a radio-frequency electromagnetic field is generated by areader to read the contents of the microprocessor. Encryption may beemployed in smart cards of this type to ensure secure transmission ofmessages between the card and the reader.

The example smart card 2 of FIGS. 4A and 4B is a contactless smart card2 that comprises a card body 4 and a circuit 6 enclosed within the cardbody. The circuit 6 is in the form of a printed circuit board, which ispreferably made from poly amide or FR-4 grade glass-reinforced epoxylaminate. A fingerprint sensor 8 is attached to the circuit 6 via a holeformed in the card body 4. An example of a suitable fingerprint sensoris the FPC 1080A fingerprint sensor manufactured by Fingerprint Cards ABof Sweden. This is a capacitive swipe-type fingerprint sensor.

The circuit 6 is laminated between at least two layers of plastic. Thelayers of plastic would typically be made of PVC; however, otherplastics may be used. Examples of other suitable plastics includepolyester, acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS), and any other suitableplastic. Additionally, plasticisers or dyes may be added to the plasticto achieve a desired look and feel.

An antenna 10 is connected to the circuit 6. The antenna 10 is used tocommunicate with a card reader, which is external to card 2. The antenna10 may be formed by etching a suitable pattern onto a copper cladding ofthe printed circuit board. The antenna in this embodiment surrounds thewhole circuit 6, but in other embodiments it may occupy a smaller areaof the card. For example, an antenna surrounding approximately a thirdof the area of the card is sufficient for most purposes.

The fingerprint area sensor 8 is joined to the circuit 6 via contacts12. The circuit 6 also includes a number of additional components 14.These can include a processor and a memory. The memory is arranged tostore both software and information associated with the smart card 2.For example, this may include the identity of a bearer of the smart card2, account information of the bearer of the smart card 2, and so on. Theprocessor is arranged to control operation of the smart card.Particularly, subject to verification of the bearer of the smart card 2,for example by use of a password or PIN and/or via data from thefingerprint sensor 8, the processor is arranged to communicate the datastored on the memory to a card reader.

The additional components 14 may include a battery, which is configuredto power the memory and processor. Alternatively, or in addition to thebattery, the card may be arranged to be powered via a contact padexternal to the smart card 2 or to draw power from the antenna 10 whenit is energised by a card reader.

FIG. 5 shows the features of the fingerprint swipe sensor 8. A scan area16 of sensor is made up of a number of pixels 18 in an array with rows Rand columns C. The fingerprint sensor 8 in this embodiment is based onthe FPC 1080A fingerprint swipe sensor mentioned above. This sensor ismade up of an array of pixels 18 with eight rows R and 128 columns C,with a width of 6.4 mm and a height of 0.4 mm, hence providing aresolution of 508 dpi. It is an active capacitive type sensor. Thefingerprint sensor 8 generates an 8-bit grey scale value as arepresentation of the fingerprint and hence a single frame/image fromthe sensor 8 is 8 kb large.

An image of the fingerprint is obtained by swiping a finger over thefingerprint sensor 8. When the finger is moved across the fingerprintsensor 8 at an appropriate rate for the frame rate of the fingerprintsensor 8 (i.e. frames per second captured by the sensor) then it ispossible to construct an image of a slice of the fingerprint byassembling a number of frames/images captured by the fingerprint sensor8. A method of combining the captured frames is discussed, for example,in US 2003/0123714.

The smart card 2 of FIGS. 4A and 4B can be produced by any suitablemethod, for example by a hot lamination method. Conventional processingtechniques, which would be well known to the person skilled in the art,may then be applied to the core to complete the card body 4. Suchprocessing techniques may include inking, the formation of anoverlaminate film, or the like.

The fingerprint sensor 8 can be fitted to the card body using a methodas described below, although other techniques can also be used.

In the preferred method the smart card 2 is first formed with thelaminated body 4 enclosing the circuit 6. The circuit 6 includescontacts 12 that are designed to connect with corresponding contacts onthe fingerprint area sensor 8, but immediately after the card body isformed these contacts 12 are encased within the laminated body 4.

A cavity is formed in the card body 4 to expose the contacts 12 in thecircuit 6. The cavity is formed on an upper surface of smart card body 4and is sized substantially in conformity with the shape of thefingerprint area sensor 8, such that the fingerprint area sensor 8 willjust fit within the cavity. The cavity is milled into the surface of thecard body 4. This may be done using a precision end mill or, morepreferably, a laser mill. The depth of the milling is set so that thebase of the cavity is at the level of the circuit 6 within the card body4, such that the contacts 12 are exposed.

A conductive epoxy is applied to the surface of the exposed contacts 12in order to provide the necessary electrical connection between thesensor 8 and the circuit 6. A suitable conductive epoxy is type SEC1222epoxy, manufactured by Resinlab, LLC of Wisconsin USA, which cures atroom temperatures (approx. 25° C.).

Alternatively, a conductive epoxy having a strongly anisotropiccharacteristic may be used. This is beneficial when the contacts on thefingerprint sensor 8 are very close together because it provides therequired conductivity between the fingerprint area sensor 8 and thecontacts 12 in the circuit 6, whilst ensuring that even if theconductive epoxy flows between adjacent contacts 12, it will not formany appreciable conductive path between them.

Interior walls of the cavity are coated with an adhesive epoxy prior tothe fingerprint sensor 8 being inserted. The adhesive epoxy seals thefingerprint sensor 8 in place.

The fingerprint sensor 8 is then is then aligned with the cavity andpushed into the cavity, such that the contacts on the fingerprint sensor8 and the contacts 12 in the circuit 6 are brought into electricalcontact through the conductive epoxy.

The conductive epoxy and adhesive epoxy preferably cure without heating.However, alternatively, one or both of the conductive epoxy and adhesiveepoxy may require heat curing where the curing temperature of theconductive epoxy and/or adhesive epoxy is below a safe temperature ofthe fingerprint sensor 8, for example below 60° C., which is a typicalmaximum operating temperature for capacitive sensors of the type used inthe preferred embodiment. Higher temperatures may be possible for shorttime periods and/or for different sensor types.

Whilst the following exemplary methods will be described in relation tothe above electronic card, it will be understood that the methods arenot limited to this application and may be implemented in any suitablesystem, such as a computer system having a memory and a processoradapted to receive an input from a fingerprint sensor, or a specialisedfingerprint reading/comparing apparatus.

Enrollment

FIG. 6 is a flow chart showing a method of enrolling a referencefingerprint image 20. The method will be described with reference toFIGS. 7 to 9 using an example where the reference fingerprint image 20to be enrolled is the fingerprint image shown in FIG. 1.

The fingerprint sensor 8 of the smart card 2 is a swipe-type sensor andhas scanning area with a width of 6.4 mm, meaning that a scanned portionof a fingerprint will be substantially rectangular. The scanned portionwill have a width that is less than the width of the fingerprint, and alength which is longer than the scanned portion's width. Hence, thescanned portion will represent a longitudinal strip of the fingerprint.The following algorithm will assemble three or more intentionallydisplaced fingerprint scans to produce one wider fingerprint scan to besaved as a template.

FIG. 7 shows three exemplary fingerprint image strip 22, 24, 26 of thereference fingerprint image 20 of FIG. 1. As each of the fingerprintimage strips 22, 24, 26 has been scanned by the same fingerprint sensor8, the width of each of the fingerprint image strips 22, 24, 26 issubstantially equal, but their lengths may be different. The fingerprintimage strips 22, 24, 26 are substantially parallel in their length-wisedirection (in the longitudinal direction of the fingerprint). Each ofthe fingerprint image strips 22, 24, 26 overlaps at least one otherfingerprint strip 22, 24, 26 by at least a third of their width.

The algorithm is iterative and will repeat until an acceptable templateis found. In order for a template to be deemed acceptable, the followingcriteria must be met:

-   -   at least three fingerprint image strips 22, 24, 26 have been        scanned;    -   the at least three fingerprint image strips 22, 24, 26 overlap        laterally in series; and    -   a width of a region of the fingerprint represented by the        overlapped fingerprint image strips 22, 24, 26 is above a        predetermined minimum width.

In the first iteration, a first strip 22 of the fingerprint is scannedusing the fingerprint sensor 8 to generate a first fingerprint imagestrip. As discussed above, the first fingerprint image strip 22 has alength that is longer than its width and a width that is less than thewidth of the reference fingerprint image 20.

Next, a minutia extraction process is applied to the first fingerprintimage strip 22 to determine a minutia representation 28 of the firstfingerprint image strip 22. Techniques for minutiae extraction from afingerprint image are well known in the art and will therefore not bediscussed in detail here. FIG. 8A shows a first minutia representation28 corresponding to the first fingerprint image strip 22 shown in FIG.7.

Each extracted minutia is stored as a minutia vector, which defines atleast a position and a minutia angle of the minutia. The position isdefined using Cartesian coordinates relative to a common reference pointfor all of the minutiae within the minutia representation. Each minutiavector also defines the type of the minutia. The type of minutiae isrepresented numerically, for example a bifurcation point=1 and atermination point=3. In this embodiment, only bifurcations andterminations are considered as these are simplest to extract, howeverother types minutiae may additionally or instead be used as required.Thus, the minutia vector for minutia i in a set of minutia vectorscomposing the minutia representation may be represented as:

-   -   M_(i)=[x_(i), y_(i), φ_(i), t_(i)],

where x is a horizontal position of the minutia, y is a verticalposition of the minutia, φ is a minutia angle of the minutia relative tothe horizontal axis (between 180° and −180°), t is a numericalrepresentation of the type of the minutia, and i is an index of theminutia vector within the set of minutia vectors.

Next the first fingerprint image strip 22 is matched against allpreviously scanned fingerprint image strips. In this first iteration,only one fingerprint strip has been scanned, and therefore this step(which will be described in detail later) does not apply.

The algorithm then determines whether an acceptable template can beformed. In the first iteration, only one fingerprint image strip 22 hasbeen scanned and thus an acceptable template cannot be formed. A seconditeration is therefore performed.

In the second iteration, the scanning and extracting are repeated asdescribed above so as to provide a second fingerprint image strip 24having a second minutia representation 30. FIG. 8B shows the secondminutiae representation 28 corresponding to the second fingerprint imagestrip 24.

Next the second fingerprint image strip 24 is matched against allpreviously scanned fingerprint image strips, i.e. the second minutiarepresentation 30 is matched with the first minutia representation 28 todetermine whether they overlap and, if so, to determine their relativealignment. Each minutia representation is matched against each otherminutia representation using a minutia-based matching method. A suitablematching algorithm is described later in detail.

The result from the matching of the first and second fingerprint imagestrips 22, 24 is a set of the matching parameters which, if the firstand second fingerprint image strips 22, 24 overlap, define the number ofmatching minutiae, an overlap error probability and a relative offsetbetween the minutia representations.

The overlap error probability is the probability that the fingerprintimage strips have been erroneously determined as overlapping and therelative minutiae translation is the average difference in relativeposition between matched minutiae in the first and second minutiaerepresentations 28, 30 of the fingerprint image strips 22, 24. Thiscorresponds to the match error probability that will be discussed later.

The algorithm then determines whether an acceptable template can beformed. In the second iteration, only two fingerprint image strips 22,24 have been scanned and again an acceptable template cannot be formed.A third iteration is therefore performed.

In the third iteration, the scanning and extracting is repeated asdescribed above so as to provide a third fingerprint image strip 26having a third minutia representation 32. FIG. 8C shows the thirdminutiae representation 32 corresponding to the third fingerprint imagestrip 26.

The third fingerprint image strip 26 is then matched with all previouslyscanned fingerprint image strips 22, 24, i.e. the third minutiarepresentation 32 is matched with each of the first and second minutiarepresentations 28, 30 to determine whether it overlaps with any or allof these. This is performed by the method discussed above.

The algorithm then determines whether an acceptable template can beformed.

By the third iteration, three fingerprint image strips 22, 24, 26 havebeen scanned, and thus the first criterion is satisfied.

Based on the matching parameters determined, if a suitable overlapoccurs between the fingerprint image strips 22, 24, 26 such that theycan be arranged laterally in series, the second criteria is satisfied. Asuitable overlap has a number of matched minutiae that exceeds apredetermined minimum number of minutiae for matching and has an overlaperror probability beneath a maximum allowable overlap error probability.A set of fingerprint image strips are arranged laterally in series when,between two end fingerprint strips, an unbroken chain of fingerprintstrips can be formed having a suitable overlap between each adjacentstrip, for example the three fingerprint image strip 22, 24, 26 shown inFIG. 7 are arranged laterally in series.

If the three fingerprint image strips 22, 24, 26 can be arrangedlaterally in series, then the width of the represented region of thefingerprint is equivalent to the sum of the widths of each of thearranged fingerprint image strips, minus the sum of the widths of theoverlapping regions. If the width of this represented region exceeds apredetermined minimum width, then an acceptable template can be formed.

If an acceptable template cannot be formed, then further iterations areperformed until an acceptable template can be formed from three or moreof the scanned representations.

When an acceptable template can be formed, a reference fingerprint imagetemplate 34 is created.

First, one of the fingerprint image strips 22, 24, 26 is selected as areference fingerprint image strip. The minutiae representations of theother fingerprint image strips 22, 24, 26 are translated based on theirmatching parameters so as to be aligned relative to the referencefingerprint image strip. The aligned minutiae representations of thefingerprint image strips 22, 24, 26 are shown in FIG. 9.

The reference fingerprint image template 34 is formed by taking theunion of the minutiae of all of the matched minutia representationswhich compose the acceptable template.

The enrolment process is then successfully terminated.

Whilst in the above described embodiment, the combining of the minutiais performed after determining that an acceptable template can beformed, it will be apparent that the minutia of each fingerprint imagestrip may alternatively be combined sequentially with those of thepreviously scanned fingerprint image strips upon each iteration of themethod.

Matching

FIG. 10 is a flow chart showing a method of matching a first fingerprintto a second fingerprint for verifying the identity of the owner of thefirst fingerprint. The method will be described with reference to FIGS.11 to 16 using an example where the first and second fingerprints areboth scanned from the same finger, i.e. they match. The firstfingerprint is a reference fingerprint image 20 and second fingerprintis an input fingerprint image 40. In this example, the referencefingerprint image 20 is a substantially complete fingerprint image 40 asshown in FIG. 11 and the input fingerprint image 40 is a portion 40 ofthe fingerprint image 20 shown in FIGS. 11 and 12. The fingerprint image20 shown in FIG. 11, corresponds to the fingerprint images 20 shown inFIGS. 1 and 7.

The reference fingerprint image 20 has been enrolled by the aboveenrolment method using the fingerprint sensor 8 and is stored on thememory of the electronic card 2. The input fingerprint image 40 has beeninput by the fingerprint sensor 8. As the reference fingerprint image 20and the input fingerprint image 40 have been scanned using the samefingerprint sensor 8, factors such as the resolution and quality of thetwo fingerprint images are consistent.

In alternative embodiments, other methods of input may also be used. Forexample, the reference fingerprint image 20 may be enrolled using anexternal fingerprint sensor 8 that is sufficiently large so as tocapture the entire fingerprint. Also, the reference fingerprint image 20may not be a complete fingerprint image, for example when the method isapplied to match minutia representations of two fingerprint imagestrips, as in the enrolment method described above.

The first step of the matching method is to provide data defining afirst set of minutiae 34 representing the reference fingerprint image20, i.e. the reference fingerprint image template 34 enrolledpreviously, and a second set of minutiae 42 representing the inputfingerprint image 40. The data comprises a first set of minutia vectors,defining the first set of minutiae, and a second set of minutia vectors,defining the second set of minutiae. The minutia vectors are as definedabove. The first set of minutia vectors are retrieved from the memory.The second set of minutia vectors are received directly from thefingerprint sensor 8.

Next the first set of minutiae 34 and the second set of minutiae 42 arelocally matched using local neighbourhoods 48.

FIG. 13 shows a local neighbourhood 48 comprising a central minutia 44and two neighbouring minutia 46. Each local neighbourhood 48 is centredaround one minutia, which will be referred to as the central minutia 44,and comprises neighbouring minutiae 46 of the central minutia 44. Theneighbouring minutiae 46 are any set of minutiae that may beconsistently selected based on the central minutia 44, but must compriseat least one minutia, other than the central minutia 44 itself.

In this preferred embodiment, the neighbouring minutiae 46 consist ofthe closest n minutiae, i.e. the n minutia with the shortest distancefrom the central minutiae 44. The integer n may be any number ofminutiae, for example the closest one, two, three, four, etc. minutiae.Whilst a larger number of neighbouring minutiae 46 is desirable in orderto improve the probability of capturing at least one neighbouringminutia 46 that appears in both sets of minutiae 34, 42, as will becomeapparent later, the number of matching steps in the following methodincreases proportionally with the square of the number of neighbouringminutiae in each neighbourhood. The inventors have identified that theuse of the three closest neighbouring minutiae 46 provide optimalmatching in the present embodiment; however, greater or fewerneighbouring minutiae 46 points may be optimal in other situations. Forexample, in situations where a sensor is more prone to false or missingminutiae, it may be desirable to include more neighbouring minutiae 46in the local neighbourhoods 48, despite the increase in processing time.

The neighbouring minutiae 46 may alternatively include all minutiaewithin a predetermined distance of the central minutiae 44 and/or may belimited to minutiae of only a single type, such as the same type as thecentral minutia 44. The considerations discussed above regarding thenumber of neighbouring minutiae still apply in such embodiments.

For each local neighbourhood 48, a local minutia vector is generated.That is to say, a first set of local minutia vectors are generated basedon the first set of minutia vectors and a second set of local minutiavectors is generated based on the second set of minutia vectors. Eachlocal minutia vector corresponds to one of the minutia vectors anddefines the relationship between the respective minutia, as the centralminutia 44, and all of its neighbouring minutiae 46 within the localneighbourhood 48.

Each local minutia vector defines: distances between the central minutia44 and each of the neighbouring minutiae 46; relative radial angles foreach neighbouring minutiae 46, which are the relative angles between theminutia angle of the central minutia 44 and lines connecting the centralminutia 44 and each of the neighbouring minutiae 46; and relativeminutia angles for each neighbouring minutia 46, which are the relativeangle between the minutia angle of each of the neighbouring minutiae 46and the minutia angle of the central minutia 44. A local minutia vectormay additionally define the types of the central minutia 44 and of itsneighbouring minutiae 46.

In this embodiment, a local minutiae vector is composed of a pluralityof local feature vectors. A local minutiae vector has a local featurevector for each neighbouring minutia 46 of the central minutia 44. Eachlocal feature vector defines the relationship between the centralminutiae 44 and that neighbouring minutia 46 and includes at least therelative distance, the radial angle and the minutia angle between thecentral minutia 44 and the respective neighbouring minutia 46. Thus, alocal feature vector for minutia k and neighbouring minutiae 46 i may berepresented as:

-   -   LF_(ki)=[d_(ki), θ_(ki), φ_(ki)],

where d_(ki) is the distance between the central minutia 44 andneighbouring minutia 46 i, θ _(ki) is the relative radial angle of theneighbouring minutia 46 i (between 180° and −180°), φ_(ki) is therelative minutia angle of the neighbouring minutia 46 i (between 180°and −180°), k is index of the central minutia and i is the index of theneighbouring minutia vector within the set of minutiae. Minutia angle ofthe central minutia is used as a angle reference.

That is to say,

$d_{ki} = \sqrt{\left( {x_{i} - x_{k}} \right)^{2} + \left( {y_{i} - y_{k}} \right)^{2}}$$\theta_{ki} = {{\tan^{- 1}\left( \frac{y_{i} - y_{k}}{x_{i} - x_{k}} \right)} - \varphi_{k}}$φ_(ki) = φ_(i) − φ_(k),

where x_(k), y_(k), and φ_(k) are the horizontal position, verticalposition, and minutia angle, respectively, of the central minutia 44,x_(i), y_(i), and φ_(i) are the horizontal position, vertical position,and minutia angle, respectively, of neighbouring minutia 64 i.

Alternatively, where a constant number of neighbouring minutiae 46 areselected for each central minutia 44, the local minutia vector for aminutia may be represented as a vector of constant size. For example,when n=3, the local minutia vector for minutia k, where minutiae i, jand l are the closest neighbouring minutiae 46, may be represented as:

-   -   L_(k)=[d_(ki), d_(kj), d_(kl), θ_(ki), θ_(kj), θ_(kl), φ_(ki),        φ_(kj), φ_(kl), t_(k), t_(i), t_(j), t_(l)],

where d_(ki) is the distance between minutia i and minutia k, etc.,φ_(ki) is the relative radial angle of minutia i and k (between 180° and−180°), etc., φ_(ki) is the relative minutia angle of minutia i and k(between 180° and −180°), etc., t_(i) is a numerical representation ofthe type of the minutia, and i is index of the local minutia vectorwithin set s.

Each local minutia vector is rotation and translation invariant, i.e.its values are independent of the orientation and position of thefingerprint image 20, 40. For example, if the fingerprint image 20, 40were to be rotated and/or translated, the minutiae vectors would change,but the local minutiae vectors would not. This is useful becausealigning the orientation and position of the two fingerprints 20, 40 iscomputationally intensive.

In the preferred embodiment, the distance between minutiae is measuredin pixels. This does not affect the comparison because the referencefingerprint image 20 and the input fingerprint image 40 have beenscanned using the same fingerprint sensor 8 and thus the resolution ofeach of the two fingerprint images 20, 40 is the same. However, wheredifferent sensors have been used, for example when the referencefingerprint image 20 has been pre-scanned using a high resolutionscanner, the reference fingerprint image 20 and the input fingerprintimage 40 may have different resolutions (measured, for example, usingdots per inch). The local minutia vector may be made scale invariant byusing a ridge count between minutiae instead of a pixel count to measuredistance. In yet a further alternative, where the respective resolutionsof the two sensors are known or can be calculated, a scaling factor maybe applied to the position data of the one (or both) of the first andsecond sets of minutia vectors so as to make the scales consistent.

The first set of local minutia vectors and the second set of localminutia vectors are then matched to obtain a set of matched minutia pairvectors. The matching comprises comparing each local minutia vector inthe first set of local minutia vectors with each local minutia vector inthe second set of local minutia vectors, and generating a matchedminutia vector when it is determined that two local minutia vectorsmatch. Each matched minutia pair vector defines a minutia in the firstset of minutiae and a minutia in the second set of minutiae which areconsidered to correspond to a single matched minutia 50.

In the comparison of a first local minutia vector, representing a localneighbourhood 48 of the reference fingerprint image 20, and a secondlocal minutia vector, representing a local neighbourhood 48 of the inputfingerprint image 40, each local feature vector of the first localminutia vector is compared with each local feature vector of the secondlocal minutia vector. That is to say, each relationship between thecentral minutia 44 of the local neighbourhood 48 of the referencefingerprint image 20 and each of its neighbouring minutiae 46 iscompared with each relationship between the central minutia 44 of thelocal neighbourhood 48 of the input fingerprint image 40 and each of itsneighbouring minutiae 46. The number of comparisons is therefore equalto the product of the number of neighbouring minutiae 46. For example,where each local neighbourhood 48 consists of three neighbouringminutiae, there are nine comparisons made for each pair of local minutiavectors.

Based on the above comparison of local feature vectors, an optimalcorrespondence is determined between the first local minutia vector andthe second local minutia vector. When the number of neighbouringminutiae is constant, each local feature vector in the first localminutia vector is associated with the most closely matching localfeature vector in the second local minutia vector, i.e. the localfeature vector having the lowest deviation. Suitable methods fordetermining optimal correspondence will be apparent to those skilled inthe art.

A matched minutia candidate is determined when a deviation between atleast one local feature vector of the first local minutia vector and theassociated local feature vector of the second local minutia vector isbelow a predetermined local feature deviation threshold. The localfeature deviation threshold defines a maximum allowable differencebetween the values of the local feature vector of the first and secondlocal minutia vectors for each of distance, relative radial angle, andrelative minutia angle between the respective central minutia 44 andneighbouring minutia 46. Other embodiments may improve the accuracy ofthe matching by only determining a match when at least two of, or evenall of, the local feature vectors having an associated local featurevector have a deviation from their associated local feature vector belowthe predetermined local feature deviation threshold.

The matching next comprises determining a local similarity score foreach matched minutia candidate. Where the local similarity score meets apredetermined threshold local similarity score, a matched minutiae pairvector is created for those corresponding minutiae.

The local similarity score between two local minutiae vectors iscalculated based on a weighted absolute difference between at least onepair of associated local feature vectors, for example the local minutiaevectors having a deviation below the predetermined local featuredeviation threshold. The following equation may be used to determine alocal similarity score Ls where local feature vector LF₁ in the firstlocal minutia vector matches local feature vector LF₂ in second localminutia vector:

${{Ls}\left( {i,j} \right)} = \left\{ {\begin{matrix}{\frac{t - {{W \cdot \left( {{LF}_{1} - {LF}_{2}} \right)}}}{t},} & {{{W \cdot \left( {{LF}_{1} - {LF}_{2}} \right)}} < t} \\{0,} & {{{W \cdot \left( {{LF}_{1} - {LF}_{2}} \right)}} \geq t}\end{matrix},} \right.$

where t is a threshold value, W is a weighting vector, LF₁ is a localfeature vector in the first local minutia vector, and L₂ is a localfeature vector in the second local minutia vector.

The weighting vector is a predetermined vector that allows the differentmeasures to be compared. The threshold value is calculated based on thelocal feature deviation threshold and the weighting vector. When thevectors are considered a match, the above equation will give a localsimilarity score between 1 and 0, with 1 being a perfect match and 0being at the maximum allowable deviation. The weighting vector isdetermined empirically based on test data.

Each minutia should not appear in more than one matched minutiae pairvector as a minutia in one set cannot be the same as two minutiae in theother set. Where a minutia appears in two or more matched minutiae pairvectors, the matched minutiae pair(s) not having the highest localsimilarity score are removed such that no minutia appears in more thanone matched minutiae pair vector within the set of matched minutia pairvectors. This may be done, for example, by ranking the set of minutiaepair vectors based on their local similarity score and processing themsequentially, in decreasing local similarity score order, and removingany minutia pair vectors including a repeated minutia (i.e. a minutiathat has been matched to another minutiae with a higher local similarityscore) as they are encountered.

In addition to defining a minutiae in the first set of minutiae andminutiae in the second set of minutiae, each matched minutiae pairvector further defines the local similarity score between thoseminutiae, as well as a horizontal (x-direction) deviation, a vertical(y-direction) deviation and a minutia angle deviation between thecorresponding minutia vectors in the first and second sets of minutiavectors. The horizontal, vertical and minutia angle deviationsrespectively correspond to the difference in absolute horizontalposition, absolute vertical position and absolute minutia angle betweenthe minutia in the first set and the minutia in the second set.

Thus, a matched minutia pair vector for minutia points i in the firstset and j in the second set may be represented as:

-   -   MP_(ij)=[i, j, dx, dy, dφ, Ls],

where i is the index of the minutia in the first set of minutiae, j isthe index of the minutia in the second set of minutiae, dx is differencebetween x_(1i) and x_(2j), dy is the difference between y_(1i) andy_(2j), dφ is the difference between φ_(1i) and φ_(2j), and Ls is thesimilarity between local minutia vector i in the first set of localminutia vectors and local minutia vector j in the second set of localminutia vectors.

After the first and second sets of local minutia vectors have beenmatched, the matched minutiae 50 are then filtered. The filtering isperformed based on the absolute positions of the matched minutiae 50within the first and second sets minutiae 34, 42, i.e. based on thefirst and second sets of minutiae vectors.

The step of filtering is optional, but is beneficial in that it removesat least some matched pairs that do not correctly define a matchedminutia 50. In some cases, because the minutiae have been compared usingonly a local frame of reference, it is possible for a minutia in thefirst set may to be matched with minutia in the second set havingsimilar neighbouring minutiae 46, but which do not represent the sameminutia. Where the two fingerprint images 20, 40 match, this error willtypically become apparent when comparing the absolute positions of thefirst and second minutiae in their respective fingerprint images becausethe minutia represented by each of the minutia vectors will be indifferent places on the fingerprint images 20, 40.

In the preferred embodiment, the reference fingerprint image 20 and theinput fingerprint image are scanned using the same fingerprint sensor 8.Therefore, their orientation and resolutions are substantially the same.Thus, if two minutiae vectors have been matched correctly, i.e. theyrepresent the same minutia, a difference in horizontal and verticaldisplacement of that minutia between the first and second sets ofminutia vectors should be similar to those of other correctly matchedminutiae 50.

The filtering is performed using a sliding window algorithm having apredetermined tolerance. The tolerance defines the size of a range froma lower limit to an upper limit for each of a dx range and a dy range.The tolerance may be set during manufacture to values having beendetermined empirically based on test data previously. Alternatively, thetolerance values may be calculated dynamically for each comparison andmay, for example, be based respectively on the variance of the dx and dyvalues of the matched pairs.

FIG. 14 shows a graphical representation of the application of thesliding window algorithm. The window defines a dx range and a dy rangehaving a fixed tolerance. Any matched minutiae pair vectors havingeither a dx or dy value outside of either of the ranges are removed. Theranges are selected so as to capture the maximum number of matchedminutiae pair vectors. Centre values of the dx and dy ranges of thewindow are positioned at points corresponding to the median dx and dyvalues respectively for the set of matched minutia pair vectors.

In an alternative arrangement the reference fingerprint image 20 and theinput fingerprint image 40 may not share a common orientation, such aswhere the reference fingerprint image 20 and the input fingerprint image40 are not scanned using the same fingerprint sensor 8. This may bedetected based on an average of the dφ values. Where this average dφ isabout zero, or at least within of a set range (such as within about ±10degrees), the fingerprints may be considered as being substantiallyaligned. Where the average dφ is not about zero, the rotational offsetwill affect the relative displacements of different minutiae pairsdifferently. In such cases, a transformation may need to be applied tothe x and y values of either the first or the second set of minutiapoints in order to correctly align the first and second data points toapply the above filtering algorithm

Following the filtering, the remaining matched minutiae pair vectors areconsidered define matched minutiae 50, i.e. each matched minutiae pairvector is considered to represent a common minutia appearing in both thefirst and second sets of minutiae. Matched minutiae pairs that wereremoved by the filtering are considered to have defined two unmatchedminutiae.

The first and second sets of minutiae 34, 42 will typically notcorrespond exactly. This may be for a number of reasons including errorswhen scanning the print and extracting the minutiae meaning that not allof the minutiae are extracted or that false minutiae are scanned.Additionally, where the inputted (or reference) fingerprint image 40 isa partial fingerprint image 40, a number of minutiae of the completefingerprint image 20 will be outside of the partial fingerprint image 40and thus cannot be extracted from the partial fingerprint image 40. Thefingerprint sensor 8 used in this example has a narrow width meaningthat all scanned fingerprints will therefore be partial fingerprints.However, even larger fingerprint sensors may scan only partialfingerprints, such as if there is a fault with a portion of the scanarea, where a part of the sensor or the fingerprint is obscured, orwhere the finger is not correctly aligned with the scan area of thefingerprint sensor 8.

When the minutia in the first and second sets of minutiae 34, 42 do notcorrespond exactly, a minutia may appear in both the first and secondsets of minutiae, but may not be matched because it has a differentlocal neighbourhood 48 in each of the sets, i.e. one or more of itsneighbouring minutiae 46 do not appear in both the first or second setsof minutiae 34, 42. That is to say, if the neighbouring minutiae 46 of acentral minutia 44 in either of the first or second sets of minutiae 34,42 include false minutiae or should include minutiae that were notscanned, that central minutia 44 cannot be matched based on those localminutiae vectors.

This can be seen with reference to the example shown in FIGS. 15A and15B. These figures show a local neighbourhood 48 including the threeclosest neighbouring minutiae 46 to a central minutia 44. As can be seenin FIG. 15A, the local neighbourhood 48 for the reference fingerprintimage 20, which is a complete fingerprint, includes a missing minutiathat is not present in the input fingerprint image 40, shown in FIG.15B, which is a partial fingerprint. As such, although the centralminutia 44 of this local neighbourhood 48 appears in both the referencefingerprint image 20 and the input fingerprint image 40, it cannot bematched as its local neighbourhood 48 is different in the twofingerprint images 20, 40.

According to the present method, the first set of minutiae 32 and thesecond set of minutiae 42 are then matched in a second step of matchingusing matched local neighbourhoods 54. The matched local neighbourhoods54 are similar to the above described local neighbourhoods 48, but onlyinclude matched neighbouring minutiae 52.

The matched neighbouring minutiae 52 of a central minutia 44 comprise aset of minutiae that can be consistently selected based on the centralminutia 44, where those minutiae are also matched minutiae 50, i.e. theywere matched previously to a minutia in the other set of minutiae 34,42. The matched neighbouring minutiae 52 must comprise at least oneminutia, other than the central minutia 44 itself.

In this preferred embodiment the matched neighbouring minutiae 52 arethe closest three matched neighbouring minutia 52. That is to say, theyare the closest three matched minutiae 50 to the central minutia 44.

New local minutiae vectors are determined for the matched localneighbourhoods 54 of minutiae that were not previously matched (i.e.those minutiae that are not matched minutiae 50), these local minutiaevectors are referred to as the unmatched local minutiae vectors.

FIGS. 16A and 16B show the matched local neighbourhoods 54 for the samecentral minutia 44 as in FIGS. 15A and 15B. These Figures also highlightthe set of matched minutiae 50 that appear in both sets of minutiae. Ascan be see, because the matched local neighbourhoods 54 are defined onlywith reference to minutia appearing in both the reference fingerprintimage 20 and the input fingerprint image 40, the same matched localneighbourhood 54 is determined for both sets of minutiae 34, 42. Thus,these minutiae can now be matched using their matched localneighbourhoods 54.

The unmatched local minutiae vectors corresponding to the first andsecond sets of minutiae 34, 42 are then matched to produce a further setof matched minutiae pairs. This further set of matched minutiae pairs isthen combined with the previously determined set of matched minutiaepairs. The matching is performed by the method discussed above.

Where a minutia appears in both the first and second sets of minutiae34, 42, but was not matched previously due to a false or missingminutiae being included in one of the minutia's local neighbourhood 48but not the other, this subsequent step of matching should correctlymatch the minutiae in the two sets. This is because this step ofmatching is based on a matched local neighbourhood 54, which onlyincludes matched minutiae 50, i.e. minutiae appearing in both sets, andtherefore will not include those false or missing minutiae.

As above, each minutia cannot appear in more than one matched minutiaepair vector. Therefore, where a minutia appears in two or more matchedminutiae pair vectors, the matched minutiae pair(s) not having thehighest local similarity score are removed such that no minutia appearsin more than one matched minutiae pair vector.

After the first and second sets of unmatched local minutia vectors havebeen matched, the matched minutiae 50 are filtered. The filtering isagain performed based on the relative absolute positions of the minutiaebetween the first and second sets.

This step of filtering is also optional, but provides similar benefitsto the step of filtering above. Particularly, as the matching is basedonly on a local coordinate system, the absolute positions of matchedminutiae 50 in the first and second sets of minutiae 34, 42 should becompared to remove pairs having significantly different relativeabsolute positions.

The filtering is preferably performed using the sliding window functiondiscussed above. In this embodiment, all of the matched minutiae 50 arefiltered (i.e. those determined by both the first and second steps ofmatching). Alternatively, but less preferred, only the matched minutiae50 that have not been filtered previously may be filtered.

It is then determined whether the reference fingerprint image 20 and theinput fingerprint image 40 match. This is based at least in part on thenumber of matched minutiae 50 (i.e. the number of matched minutiae pairvectors), and also on the number of minutiae in the first set ofminutiae 34 and the number of minutiae in the second set of minutiae 42.The determination is preferably based on a set of statistical parametersincluding at least one of: the number of matched minutiae 50; the numberof minutiae in the first set of minutiae 34; the number of minutiae inthe second set of minutiae 42; the number of matched minutiae 50 of thesame minutia type; the number of matched minutiae 50 having a similarityabove a predetermined threshold; and the area occupied by the matchedminutiae 50.

In the preferred embodiment, the reference fingerprint image 20 and theinput fingerprint image 40 are considered to be matched if d is true forthe following equation:d=p _(e)<matchTresh

n _(m)>matchesNumMin

a>areaMin,

where n_(m) is the number of matched minutiae 50, a is the area ofoverlap between the reference fingerprint image 20 and the inputfingerprint image 40, and p_(e) a match error probability calculated asthe product of three independent probabilities:p _(e) =p _(me) *p _(te) *p _(pe)

Term p_(me) is the probability for a randomly generated set of inputminutia features to be matched to subset of template features lookingonly at minutia position, and is determined as by:

$p_{me} = {\sum\limits_{k = n_{m}}^{n_{fT}}{\begin{pmatrix}n_{f} \\k\end{pmatrix}{p^{k}\left( {1 - p} \right)}^{n_{f} - k}}}$

where p is probability for one randomly generated minutia to be matchedwith one minutia from the first (template set).

Term p_(te) is the probability that there are n_(t) randomly generatedminutiae which have same type as matching minutiae from the template.Term p_(pe) denotes probability that there are n_(p) matched minutiaewith very high similarity score, higher than certain constant thresholdp_(p1), which is determined experimentally. Introduction of p_(pe)improves overall performance, because it reduces possibility ofaccidental matching.

$p_{te} = {\begin{pmatrix}n_{m} \\n_{t}\end{pmatrix}(0.5)^{n_{t}}}$ $p_{pe} = {\begin{pmatrix}n_{m} \\n_{p}\end{pmatrix}p_{p\; 1}^{n_{p}}}$

By the method described above, two fingerprints may be efficiently andeffectively matched, even when one or both of the fingerprints is apartial fingerprint or is prone to false or missing minutiae.

It should be apparent that the foregoing relates only to the preferredembodiments of the present application and the resultant patent.Numerous changes and modification may be made herein by one of ordinaryskill in the art without departing from the general spirit and scope ofthe invention as defined by the following claims and the equivalentsthereof.

We claim:
 1. A method of comparing a first set of minutiae and a secondset of minutiae, each minutia of the first and second sets of minutiaehaving a position and a minutia angle within the set of minutiae, themethod comprising: determining a first local neighbourhood for eachminutia in the first set of minutiae and for each minutia in the secondset of minutiae, wherein each first local neighbourhood includes atleast one minutia neighbouring the respective minutia; comparing thefirst local neighbourhoods of the minutiae in the first set of minutiaewith the first local neighbourhoods of the minutiae in the second set ofminutiae to determine matched minutiae appearing in both the first andsecond sets of minutiae, wherein each minutia that is not a matchedminutia is an unmatched minutia; after determining the matched minutiae,filtering the matched minutiae based on the position and/or orientationof each of the matched minutiae within the first and second sets ofminutiae, wherein filtering the matched minutiae comprises: determininga relative position and/or a relative orientation of each matchedminutia between the first and second sets of minutiae; and filtering outmatched minutiae having a relative position and/or a relativeorientation that is outside of an allowable region, wherein theallowable region has a predetermined range and is positioned so as tomaximise the number of matched minutiae within the range; afterfiltering the matched minutiae, determining a second local neighbourhoodfor each unmatched minutia in the first set of minutiae and for eachunmatched minutia in the second set of minutiae, wherein each secondlocal neighbourhood includes at least one matched minutia neighbouringthe respective unmatched minutia; and comparing the second localneighbourhoods of the unmatched minutiae in the first set of minutiaewith the second local neighbourhoods of the unmatched minutiae in thesecond set of minutiae to determine further matched minutiae appearingin both the first and second sets of minutiae.
 2. A method as claimed inclaim 1, wherein the first set of minutiae represents a portion of afirst fingerprint and the second set of minutiae represents a portion ofa second fingerprint.
 3. A method as claimed in claim 2, furthercomprising: determining whether the first and second fingerprints arethe same based on the matched minutiae and the further matched minutiae.4. A method as claimed in claim 1, wherein comparing the localneighbourhoods is based at least one of: a relative position, a relativeorientation and a relative minutia angle of each of the at least oneneighbouring minutia relative to a central minutia of the respectivefirst local neighbourhood.
 5. A method as claimed in claim 1, furthercomprising: for each first local neighbourhood, determining a relativerelationship between a central minutia of the first local neighbourhoodand each of the at least one neighbouring minutia, wherein comparing thefirst local neighbourhoods comprises comparing each relativerelationship of the first local neighbourhoods of the minutiae in thefirst set of minutiae with each relative relationship of the first localneighbourhoods of the minutiae in the second set of minutiae, andwherein a matched minutiae is determined as appearing in both the firstand second sets of minutiae when a difference between one relativerelationship of the first local neighbourhood of the respective minutiaein one of the sets of minutiae and one relative relationship of thefirst local neighbourhood of the respective minutiae in the other set ofminutiae is below a predetermined threshold.
 6. A method as claimed inclaim 5, further comprising: for each second local neighbourhood,determining a relative relationship between a central minutia of thesecond local neighbourhood and each of the at least one neighbouringmatched minutia, wherein comparing the second local neighbourhoodscomprises comparing each relative relationship of the second localneighbourhoods of the unmatched minutiae in the first set of minutiaewith each relative relationship of the second local neighbourhoods ofthe unmatched minutiae in the second set of minutiae, and wherein afurther matched minutiae is determined as appearing in both the firstand second sets of minutiae when a difference between one relativerelationship of the second local neighbourhood of the respectiveunmatched minutiae in one of the sets of minutiae and one relativerelationship of the second local neighbourhood of the respectiveunmatched minutiae in the other set of minutiae is below a predeterminedthreshold.
 7. A method as claimed in claim 1, further comprising:determining similarity scores based on a similarity between each firstlocal neighbourhood of the first set of minutiae and each first localneighbourhood of the second set of minutiae, and determining a matchedminutia only when a corresponding similarity score meets a predeterminedsimilarity threshold; and determining similarity scores based on asimilarity between each second local neighbourhood of the first set ofminutiae and each second local neighbourhood of the second set ofminutiae, and determining a further matched minutia only when acorresponding similarity score meets a predetermined similaritythreshold.
 8. A method as claimed in claim 7, further comprising:determining whether a minutia in the one of the first and second sets ofminutia has been matched with two or more minutiae in the other set and,if so, selecting the matching having a higher similarity score.
 9. Amethod as claimed in claim 1, further comprising: after determining thefurther matching minutiae, filtering the matched minutiae based on theposition and/or orientation of each of the matched minutiae within thefirst and second sets of minutiae.
 10. A method as claimed in claim 1,wherein the at least one neighbouring minutia includes the three closestneighbouring minutiae.
 11. A method as claimed in claim 1, wherein theat least one neighbouring matched minutia includes the three closestneighbouring matched minutiae.
 12. A data processing apparatuscomprising a memory and a processor, the memory storing instructionsthat when executed will cause the processor to perform the method ofclaim
 1. 13. A non-transitory computer-readable medium comprisinginstructions stored thereon that, when executed, will cause a processorto perform a method as claimed in claim
 1. 14. A method of comparing afirst set of minutiae and a second set of minutiae, the methodcomprising: determining a first local neighbourhood for each minutia inthe first set of minutiae and in the second set of minutiae, whereineach first local neighbourhood includes at least one minutianeighbouring the respective minutia; for each first local neighbourhood,determining a relative relationship between a central minutia of thefirst local neighbourhood and each of the at least one neighbouringminutia; comparing each relative relationship of the first localneighbourhoods of the minutiae in the first set of minutiae with eachrelative relationship of the first local neighbourhoods of the minutiaein the second set of minutiae; determining matched minutiae appearing inboth the first and second sets of minutiae when a difference between onerelative relationship of the respective first local neighbourhood of theminutiae in one of the sets of minutiae and one relationship of thefirst local neighbourhood of the minutiae in the other set of minutiaeis below a predetermined threshold; and filtering the matched minutiaebased on the position and/or orientation of each of the matched minutiaewithin the first and second sets of minutiae, wherein filtering thematched minutiae comprises: determining a relative position and/or arelative orientation of each matched minutia between the first andsecond sets of minutiae; and filtering out matched minutiae having arelative position and/or a relative orientation that is outside of anallowable region, wherein the allowable region has a predetermined rangeand is positioned so as to maximise the number of matched minutiaewithin the range.
 15. A method as claimed in claim 14, furthercomprising: determining similarity scores based on a similarity betweeneach first local neighbourhood of the first set of minutiae and eachfirst local neighbourhood of the second set of minutiae, and determininga matched minutia only when a corresponding similarity score meets apredetermined similarity threshold.
 16. A method as claimed in claim 15,further comprising: determining whether a minutia in the one of thefirst and second sets of minutia has been matched with two or moreminutiae in the other set and, if so, selecting the matching having ahigher similarity score.
 17. A method as claimed in claim 14, whereinthe first set of minutiae represents a portion of a first fingerprintand the second set of minutiae represents a portion of a secondfingerprint.
 18. A method as claimed in claim 17, further comprising:determining whether the first and second fingerprints are the same basedon the matched minutiae.
 19. A method as claimed in claim 14, whereincomparing the first local neighbourhoods is based at least one of: arelative position, a relative orientation and a relative minutia angleof each of the at least one neighbouring minutia relative to a centralminutiae of the respective first local neighbourhood.
 20. A method asclaimed in claim 14, wherein the at least one neighbouring minutiaincludes the three closest neighbouring minutiae.
 21. A data processingapparatus comprising a memory and a processor, the memory storinginstructions that when executed will cause the processor to perform themethod of claim
 14. 22. A non-transitory computer-readable mediumcomprising instructions stored thereon that, when executed, will cause aprocessor to perform a method as claimed in claim
 14. 23. A method ofcomparing a first set of minutiae and a second set of minutiae, themethod comprising: determining a first local neighbourhood for eachminutia in the first set of minutiae and for each minutia in the secondset of minutiae, wherein each first local neighbourhood includes atleast one minutia neighbouring the respective minutia; comparing thefirst local neighbourhoods of the minutiae in the first set of minutiaewith the first local neighbourhoods of the minutiae in the second set ofminutiae to determine matched minutiae appearing in both the first andsecond sets of minutiae, comprising: determining similarity scores basedon a similarity between each first local neighbourhood of the first setof minutiae and each first local neighbourhood of the second set ofminutiae; and determining a matched minutia only when a correspondingsimilarity score meets a predetermined similarity threshold, whereineach minutia that is not a matched minutia is an unmatched minutia;determining a second local neighbourhood for each unmatched minutia inthe first set of minutiae and for each unmatched minutia in the secondset of minutiae, wherein each second local neighbourhood includes atleast one matched minutia neighbouring the respective unmatched minutia;and comparing the second local neighbourhoods of the unmatched minutiaein the first set of minutiae with the second local neighbourhoods of theunmatched minutiae in the second set of minutiae to determine furthermatched minutiae appearing in both the first and second sets ofminutiae, comprising: determining similarity scores based on asimilarity between each second local neighbourhood of the first set ofminutiae and each second local neighbourhood of the second set ofminutiae; and determining a further matched minutia only when acorresponding similarity score meets a predetermined similaritythreshold, wherein at least one of determining the matched minutia anddetermining the further matched minutia comprises: determining whether aminutia in the one of the first and second sets of minutia has beenmatched with two or more minutiae in the other set and, if so, selectingthe matching having a higher similarity score.
 24. A data processingapparatus comprising a memory and a processor, the memory storinginstructions that when executed will cause the processor to perform themethod of claim
 23. 25. A non-transitory computer-readable mediumcomprising instructions stored thereon that, when executed, will cause aprocessor to perform a method as claimed in claim
 23. 26. A method ofcomparing a first set of minutiae and a second set of minutiae, themethod comprising: determining a first local neighbourhood for eachminutia in the first set of minutiae and in the second set of minutiae,wherein each first local neighbourhood includes at least one minutianeighbouring the respective minutia; for each first local neighbourhood,determining a relative relationship between a central minutia of thefirst local neighbourhood and each of the at least one neighbouringminutia; comparing each relative relationship of the first localneighbourhoods of the minutiae in the first set of minutiae with eachrelative relationship of the first local neighbourhoods of the minutiaein the second set of minutiae; and determining matched minutiaeappearing in both the first and second sets of minutiae when adifference between one relative relationship of the respective firstlocal neighbourhood of the minutiae in one of the sets of minutiae andone relationship of the first local neighbourhood of the minutiae in theother set of minutiae is below a predetermined threshold, thedetermining comprising: determining similarity scores based on asimilarity between each first local neighbourhood of the first set ofminutiae and each first local neighbourhood of the second set ofminutiae; determining a matched minutia only when a correspondingsimilarity score meets a predetermined similarity threshold; anddetermining whether a minutia in the one of the first and second sets ofminutia has been matched with two or more minutiae in the other set and,if so, selecting the matching having a higher similarity score.
 27. Adata processing apparatus comprising a memory and a processor, thememory storing instructions that when executed will cause the processorto perform the method of claim
 26. 28. A non-transitorycomputer-readable medium comprising instructions stored thereon that,when executed, will cause a processor to perform a method as claimed inclaim 26.